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He wrote on philosophypolitical theorysociology cctv rational choice theory, historyand linguistics. He was a founding member and one-time leader of the Communist Party of Italy and was imprisoned by Benito Mussolini 's Fascist regime, cctv rational choice theory. Gramsci wrote more than 30 notebooks and 3, cctv rational choice theory, pages of history and analysis during his imprisonment. His Prison Notebooks are considered a highly original contribution to 20th-century political theory.
The notebooks cover a wide range of topics, including Italian history and nationalismthe French RevolutionfascismTaylorism and Fordismcivil societycctv rational choice theory, cctv rational choice theoryreligion and high and popular culture.
Gramsci is best known for his theory of cultural hegemonywhich describes how the state and ruling capitalist class — the cctv rational choice theory — use cultural institutions to maintain power in capitalist societies. The bourgeoisie, in Gramsci's view, develops a hegemonic culture using ideologyrather than violence, economic force, or coercion. Hegemonic culture propagates its own values and norms so that they become the " common sense " values of all and thus maintain the status quo.
Cultural hegemony is therefore used to maintain consent to the capitalist order, rather than the use of force to maintain order.
This cultural hegemony is produced and cctv rational choice theory by the dominant class through the institutions that form the superstructure. Gramsci also attempted to break from the economic determinism of traditional Marxist thought, cctv rational choice theory, and so is sometimes described as a neo-Marxist.
Gramsci [9] was born in Alesin the province of Oristanoon the island of Sardiniathe fourth of seven sons of Francesco Gramsci — and Giuseppina Marcias — The senior Gramsci was cctv rational choice theory low-level official born in the small town of Gaetain the province of Latina in the Central Italian region of Lazioto a well-off family from the Southern Italian regions of Campania and Calabria and of Arbëreshë Italo-Albanian descent.
InFrancesco was convicted of embezzlement and imprisoned, reducing his cctv rational choice theory to destitution.
The young Antonio had to abandon schooling and work at various casual jobs until his father's release in For decades, it was reported that his condition had been due to a childhood accident—specifically, having been dropped by a nanny—but more cctv rational choice theory it has been suggested that it was due to Pott disease[20] a form of tuberculosis that can cause deformity of the spine.
Gramsci was also plagued by various internal disorders throughout his life. Gramsci completed secondary school in Cagliariwhere he lodged with his elder brother Gennaro, a former soldier whose time on the mainland had made him a militant socialist.
However, Gramsci's sympathies then did not lie with socialism, but rather with the grievances of impoverished Sardinian peasants and miners, whose mistreatment by the mainlanders would later deeply contribute to his intellectual growth.
In Gramsci won a scholarship to study at the University of Turinsitting the exam at the same time as Palmiro Togliatti. Gramsci was in Turin as it was going through industrialization, with the Fiat and Lancia factories recruiting workers from poorer regions. Trade unions became established, and the first industrial social conflicts started to emerge.
Both his earlier experiences in Sardinia and his environment on the mainland shaped his worldview. Gramsci joined the Italian Socialist Party in latewhere he would later occupy a key position and observe from Turin the Russian revolution.
Although showing a talent for his studies, cctv rational choice theory, Gramsci had financial problems and poor health. Together with his growing political commitment, these led to him abandoning his education in earlyat age By this time he had acquired an extensive knowledge of history and philosophy.
At university, he had come into contact with the thought of Antonio LabriolaRodolfo MondolfoGiovanni Gentileand most importantly, Benedetto Crocecctv rational choice theory, possibly the most widely respected Italian intellectual of his day. Labriola especially propounded a brand of Hegelian Marxism that he labelled "philosophy of praxis ". From onward, Gramsci's writings for socialist newspapers such as Il Grido del Popolo The Cry of the People [ it cctv rational choice theory earned him a reputation as a notable journalist.
In he became co-editor of the Piedmont edition of Avanti! An articulate and prolific writer of political theory, cctv rational choice theory, Gramsci proved a formidable commentator, writing on all aspects of Turin's social and political events.
Gramsci was at this time also involved in the education and organisation of Turin workers; he spoke in public for the first time in and gave talks on topics such as Romain Rollandthe French Revolutionthe Paris Communeand the emancipation of women. In the wake of the arrest of Socialist Party leaders that followed revolutionary riots in AugustGramsci became one of Turin's leading socialists; he was elected to the party's Provisional Committee and also made editor of Il Grido del Popolo.
In Aprilwith Togliatti, Angelo Tasca and Umberto TerraciniGramsci set up the weekly newspaper L'Ordine Nuovo The New Order. In October the same year, despite being divided into various hostile factions, the Socialist Party moved by a large majority to join the Third International.
Vladimir Lenin saw the Cctv rational choice theory Nuovo group as closest in orientation to the Bolsheviksand it received his backing against the anti-parliamentary programme of the left-communist Amadeo Bordiga.
In the course of tactical debates within the party, Gramsci's group mainly stood out due to its advocacy of workers' councilswhich had come into existence in Turin spontaneously during the large strikes of and For Gramsci, these councils were the proper means of enabling workers to take control of the task of organising production. Although he believed his position at this time to be in keeping with Lenin's policy of "All power to the Soviets", his stance that these Italian councils were communist, rather than just one organ of political struggle against the bourgeoisie, was attacked by Bordiga for betraying a syndicalist tendency influenced by the thought of Georges Sorel and Daniel DeLeon.
By the time of the defeat of the Turin workers in springGramsci was almost alone in his defence of the councils. The failure of cctv rational choice theory workers' councils to develop into a national movement convinced Gramsci that a Communist Party in the Leninist sense was needed. The group around L'Ordine Nuovo declaimed incessantly against the Italian Socialist Party's centrist leadership and ultimately allied with Bordiga's far larger "abstentionist" faction.
On 21 Januaryin the town of Livorno Leghornthe Communist Party of Italy Partito Comunista d'Italia — PCI was founded. In opposition to Bordiga, Gramsci supported the Arditi del Popoloa militant anti-fascist group which struggled against the Blackshirts.
Gramsci would be a leader of the party cctv rational choice theory its inception but was subordinate to Bordiga, whose emphasis on discipline, centralism and purity of principles dominated the party's programme until the latter lost the leadership in InGramsci travelled to Russia as a representative of the new party. Here, he met Julia Schucht Yulia Apollonovna Schuchta young violinist whom he married in and with whom he had two sons, Delio born and Giuliano born The Russian mission coincided with the advent of fascism in Italy, and Gramsci returned with instructions to foster, against the wishes of the PCI leadership, a united front cctv rational choice theory leftist parties against fascism.
Such a front would ideally have had the PCI at its centre, through which Moscow would have controlled all the leftist forces, but others disputed this potential supremacy: socialists did have a certain tradition in Italy, too, cctv rational choice theory, while the Communist Party seemed relatively young and too radical.
Many believed that an eventual coalition led by communists would have functioned too remotely from political debate, and thus would have run the risk of isolation. In late and earlyBenito Mussolini's government embarked on a campaign of repression against the opposition parties, arresting most of the PCI leadership, cctv rational choice theory, including Bordiga, cctv rational choice theory.
At the end ofGramsci travelled from Moscow to Viennawhere he tried to revive a party torn by factional strife. In Gramsci, now recognised as head of the PCI, gained election as a deputy for the Veneto. He started organizing the launch of the official newspaper of the party, called L'Unità Unityliving in Rome while his family stayed in Moscow.
At its Lyon Congress in JanuaryGramsci's theses calling for a united front to restore democracy to Italy were adopted by the party. InJoseph Stalin 's manoeuvres inside the Bolshevik party moved Gramsci to write a letter to the Comintern in which he deplored the opposition led by Leon Trotsky but also underlined some presumed faults of the leader. Togliatti, in Moscow as a representative of the party, received the letter, opened it, read it, and decided not to deliver it. This caused a difficult conflict between Gramsci and Togliatti which they never completely resolved.
On 9 Novemberthe Fascist government enacted a new wave of emergency laws, taking as a pretext an alleged attempt on Mussolini's life that had occurred several days earlier. The fascist police arrested Gramsci, despite his parliamentary immunitycctv rational choice theory, and brought him to the Roman prison Regina Coeli.
At his trial, Gramsci's prosecutor stated, cctv rational choice theory, "For twenty years we must stop this brain from functioning", cctv rational choice theory. Over cctv rational choice theory years in prison, cctv rational choice theory, his health deteriorated: "His teeth fell out, his digestive system collapsed so that he could not eat solid food he had convulsions when he vomited blood and suffered headaches so violent that he beat his head against the walls of his cell.
An international campaign, cctv rational choice theory, organised by Piero Sraffa at Cambridge University and Gramsci's sister-in-law Tatiana, was mounted to demand Gramsci's release. He was due for release on 21 April and planned to retire to Sardinia for convalescencebut a combination of arteriosclerosispulmonary tuberculosishigh blood pressureanginagoutand acute gastric disorders meant that he was too ill to move.
His ashes are buried in the Cimitero Acattolico Non-Catholic Cemetery in Rome. Gramsci was one of the most important Marxist thinkers of the 20th century, and a particularly key thinker in the development of Western Marxism. He wrote more than 30 notebooks and 3, pages of history and analysis during his imprisonment. These writings, known as the Prison Notebookscontain Gramsci's tracing of Italian history and nationalism, as well as some ideas in Marxist theorycritical theory and educational theory associated with his name, such as:.
Hegemony was a term previously used by Russian Marxists such as Vladimir Lenin to denote the cctv rational choice theory leadership of the working class in a democratic revolution.
Orthodox Marxism had predicted that socialist revolution was inevitable in capitalist societies. By the early 20th century, no such revolution had occurred in the most advanced nations.
Rather, capitalism seemed more entrenched than ever. Capitalism, Gramsci suggested, maintained control not just through violence and political and economic coercion, but also through ideology. The bourgeoisie developed a hegemonic culture, which propagated its own values and norms so that they became the " common sense " values of all.
People in the working class and other classes identified their own good with the good of the bourgeoisie and helped to maintain the status quo rather than revolting. To counter the notion that bourgeois values represented natural or normal values for society, the working class needed to develop a culture of its own. Lenin held that culture was ancillary to political objectives, cctv rational choice theory, but for Gramsci, it was fundamental to the attainment of power that cultural hegemony be achieved first.
In Gramsci's view, a class cannot dominate in modern conditions by merely advancing its own narrow economic interests; neither can it dominate purely through force and coercion, cctv rational choice theory. This bloc forms the basis of consent to a certain social order, which produces and re-produces the hegemony of the dominant class through a nexus of institutions, social relationsand ideas. Gramsci stated that bourgeois cultural values were tied to folklorepopular culture and religion, and therefore much of his analysis of hegemonic culture is aimed at cctv rational choice theory. He was also impressed by the influence Roman Catholicism had and the care the Church had taken to prevent an excessive gap developing between the religion of the learned and that of the less educated, cctv rational choice theory.
Gramsci saw Marxism as a marriage of the purely intellectual critique of religion found in Renaissance humanism and the elements of the Reformation that had appealed to the masses. For Gramsci, Marxism could supersede religion only if it met people's spiritual needs, and to do so people would have to think of it as an expression of their own experience.
Gramsci gave much thought to the role of intellectuals in society. Furthermore, he distinguished between a traditional intelligentsia which sees itself wrongly as a class apart from society, and the thinking groups which every class produces from its own ranks "organically".
To Gramsci, it was the duty of organic intellectuals to speak to the obscured precepts of cctv rational choice theory wisdom, or common sense senso comuneof their respective political spheres. These intellectuals would represent excluded social groups of a society, what Gramsci referred to as the subaltern.
In line with Gramsci's theories of hegemonic power, cctv rational choice theory, he argued that capitalist power needed to be challenged by building a counter-hegemony. By this he meant that, as part of the war of position, the organic intellectuals and others within the working-class, need to develop alternative values and an alternative ideology in contrast to bourgeois ideology, cctv rational choice theory.
He argued that the reason this had not needed cctv rational choice theory happen in Russia was because the Russian ruling class did not have genuine hegemonic power. So the Bolsheviks were able to see through a war of manoeuvre the revolutionrelatively easily, because ruling-class hegemony had never been fully achieved. He believed that a final war of manoeuvre was only possible, in the developed and advanced capitalist societies, when the war of position had been won by the organic intellectuals and the working-class building a counter-hegemony.
The need to create a working-class culture and a counter-hegemony relates to Gramsci's call for a kind of education that could develop working-class intellectuals, cctv rational choice theory, whose task was not to introduce Marxist ideology into the consciousness of the proletariat as a set of foreign notions but to renovate the existing intellectual activity of the masses and make it natively critical of the status quo.
His ideas about an education system for this purpose correspond with the notion of critical pedagogy and popular education as theorized and practised in later decades by Paulo Freire in Brazil, and have much in common with the thought of Frantz Fanon. For this reason, partisans of adult and popular education consider Gramsci's writings and ideas important to this day.
Gramsci's theory of hegemony is tied to his conception of the capitalist state. Gramsci does not understand the state in the narrow sense of the government.
What is RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY? What does RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY mean?
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The prevalence of CCTV in modern correctional facilities and the generally indiscreet nature of strip searches, often with a number of prison guards observing, usually adds to the experienced humiliation. Strip searches are often arbitrarily used under various pretences, when the actual ambition is to assert control and predominance as well as Oct 10, · The review examines the research evidence on what works to reduce crime. It focuses on three key strategies: 1)targeting the underlying causes of crime 2)deterring potential offenders by ensuring that the cost of offending is greater than the benefits and 3)increasing the difficulty of offending by reducing opportunities to commit crime ceptions, we thus posses s images, rational constructs and ide as we. create oursel ves. The question, howe ver, Gibson’ s theory of direct perception represent s one of the most in-
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